Main article: Historically inhabited by the, the written history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the of Ancient Iran. In the 8th century AD, -speaking tribes moved from into present-day Central Asia.

Turkmenistan State University which is illustrated here is the only tertiary institution in the country, having been established in 1931 as the Ashgabat Pedagogical Institute. Although it still has a wide range of faculties these are gradually being pared down, and foreign qualifications are no longer recognized.

Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population. In the 10th century, the name 'Turkmen' was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted and began to occupy present-day Turkmenistan. There they were under the dominion of the, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day and Turkmenistan. Turkmen soldiers in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day and eastern.

Helmet (15th century) In the 12th century, and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire. In the next century, the took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups. The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the Turkmen tribes, who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors. By the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary,. Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period. In the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Turkmen group resulted in that group's dispersal by the Uzbek rulers.

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According to Paul R. Spickard, 'Prior to the Russian conquest, the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian.'

City of in, 1890 forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century. From their base at Krasnovodsk (now ), the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates. In 1881, the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the, and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed, together with adjoining Uzbek territory, into the. In 1916 the Russian Empire's participation in resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia.

Although the of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined,, and Uzbeks in the so-called against the rule of the newly formed. In 1924 the was formed from the tsarist province of. By the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life. The of 1948 killed over 110,000 people, amounting to two-thirds of the city's population.